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How do Batteries Work?

Michael Anissimov
Michael Anissimov
Michael Anissimov
Michael Anissimov

Batteries, or dry cells, operate by connecting, through a circuit, a material that wants to donate electrons to another material that lacks electrons. These are called a reducer or reducing agent and an oxidizer or oxidizing agent, respectively. The process is one of many oxidation-reduction reactions that include the rusting of iron and the bleaching of clothing.

When an oxidizer and a reducer meet, chemical reactions occur in both and electrons are transferred. The electron transfer creates a direct current (DC). In typical batteries, this is 1.5 volts.

Batteries.
Batteries.

One of the first oxidizers to be studied in detail was elemental oxygen. Oxygen gains electrons from other substances such as iron, causing the material to be oxidized. When iron becomes oxidized, it bonds to oxygen molecules to create iron oxide, or rust. Many other oxidizers exist, including bromine, chlorine, and fluorine. In conventional batteries, manganese dioxide powder is used as an oxidizer, turning into manganese oxide when it is depleted.

A dry cell battery.
A dry cell battery.

The term reducer is from metallurgy, and refers to a chemical reaction in which a substance loses electrons. The chemical transformation is one from an oxide, like iron oxide, to a non-oxide, such as iron. This chemical process has long been used to turn ores into pure metals, and is so named because the reaction causes the sample to lose some mass. In conventional batteries, the reducer is zinc.

A battery-powered drill.
A battery-powered drill.

A battery looks like a single thing, but it's actually two: an oxidizer and a reducer placed close to each other and separated by a barrier. Each is connected to an electrode, which are called positive and negative, depending on which substance they correspond to. When the circuit between the positive and negative electrode is completed, the electrons flow and continue to flow until equilibrium has been reached.

Batteries are a weak point in the electronics industry.
Batteries are a weak point in the electronics industry.

Usually, these power supplies are connected to an external load, which draws power from the electron current. Sometimes, the DC current is connected to an alternator, which converts it into alternating current (AC), which is the kind of electricity used by our household appliances. Batteries have not been fundamentally changed since they were first invented, and they are a noticeable weak spot for the field of electronics, in which price-performance increases are historically exponential.

Michael Anissimov
Michael Anissimov

Michael is a longtime WiseGEEK contributor who specializes in topics relating to paleontology, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, and futurism. In addition to being an avid blogger, Michael is particularly passionate about stem cell research, regenerative medicine, and life extension therapies. He has also worked for the Methuselah Foundation, the Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence, and the Lifeboat Foundation.

Learn more...
Michael Anissimov
Michael Anissimov

Michael is a longtime WiseGEEK contributor who specializes in topics relating to paleontology, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, and futurism. In addition to being an avid blogger, Michael is particularly passionate about stem cell research, regenerative medicine, and life extension therapies. He has also worked for the Methuselah Foundation, the Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence, and the Lifeboat Foundation.

Learn more...

Discussion Comments

anon32839

Iron is a heavy metal so it will be poisonous if ingested in higher doses. Also a good idea not to have it interact with your skin. Manganese dioxide however can be quite irritating...can cause problems to kidneys, respiratory tract and central nervous system. It can be corrosive and cause inflammation of eyes and skin so try not to get in contact with it. Generally if cells leak in an electronic device it is best not to use it again (if it is a serious leak) or try cleaning it by scraping away the hardened substance.

anon30517

When a household battery oxidizes or leaks (not sure what's happening here), is the pink and white flaky substance dangerous? It's just a couple of 'C' batteries in a portable boom box.

anon25505

What type of batteries associated with gaseous emissions? Do all Ni-Cd batteries emit hydrogen ??

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    • Batteries.
      By: Nikolai Sorokin
      Batteries.
    • A dry cell battery.
      By: Stephen Sweet
      A dry cell battery.
    • A battery-powered drill.
      By: mbongo
      A battery-powered drill.
    • Batteries are a weak point in the electronics industry.
      Batteries are a weak point in the electronics industry.
    • Rechargeable batteries.
      By: ilyat
      Rechargeable batteries.